Fungal evolution discovered: Mycena can now invade living hosts

真菌孢子float through the air. Thin strands of their mycelia creep along surfaces. They seek out defenseless hosts to wrap themselves around in webs of fungal growth. Their victims can then be used to satisfy their own need to devour and disperse. That fungi have begun to invade the living is a horrific thought for anyone who ever thought that fungi only dined upon the dead. Or, at least for those who streamThe Last of Us, a post-apocalyptic series in which humans battle relentless fungal-infected zombies.

Fortunately, reality is rarely so dramatic. But after Danish mycologists targeted localMycena, known as bonnet mushrooms, it turned out that certain similarities emerged nevertheless. New research from the University of Copenhagen's Department of Biology suggests that this genus of fungi, which has traditionally been considered saprotrophic -- i.e., a decomposer of nonliving organic matter -- is in the midst of an evolutionary leap.

"Using DNA studies, we found thatMycenafungiare consistently found in the roots of living plant hosts. This suggests that bonnets are in the process of an evolutionary development, from uniquely being decomposers of nonliving plant material to being invaders of living plants, under favourable conditions," explains Christoffer Bugge Harder, the study's lead author.

The research also demonstrates that some of these bonnet mushrooms species even show early signs of being able to act asmutualists-- i.e., live in symbiosis with trees. Unlike the terrifying fungi inThe Last of Us, the researchers believe thatMycenaare primarily out to do good, as seen from the plant's perspective. This comes in the form of a kind of evolutionary courtship in which they live in harmony with their living hosts.

"We see that a someMycenaappear to exchange nitrogen, an indispensable nutrient for plants, with carbon from plants," says the researcher.

"Once having penetrated a living plant, fungi can choose three strategies. They can be harmful parasites and suck the life out of their new hosts; they can lurk like vultures, waiting harmlessly for the plant to die, and be the first to feast upon the "carrion"; or, they can begin working together. SomeMycenaspecies are gradually developing the ability to collaborate, though it has yet to be finely tuned," says Christoffer Bugge Harder.

Good deeds challenge traditional roles

"Other fungi, theAmanitagenus for example, are known to work together with living plants, an ability that they developed many millions of years ago. ButAmanitahave long since lost their ability to survive without their hosts. And that's how we traditionally divided fungi into strictly separate ecological groups: mutualistic, parasitic or saprophytic," explains Christoffer Bugge Harder.

Mycenaseem to fall somewhere in between the ecological niches.

"The strict division has been increasingly called into question, and ourMycenaresearch supports a blurring of the lines. SomeMycenahave found their own solution and span several different ecological roles," says Harder.

By looking at carbon isotopes inMycena, the researchers were able to conclude that these fungi are saprotrophic decomposers, as well as mutualistic. And perhaps even parasitic.

"Mycena都是机会主义者。不像Amanita,他们可以很容易地增长,而不需要入侵plants, but should the opportunity arise, it's a nifty bonus. They also seek out living roots, where they have nitrogen to offer -- as fungi can take up nitrogen easier than a tree -- for a reasonable price," explains Christoffer Bugge Harder.

Payment comes either in the form of carbon from the host while it is living, or when their friendly host dies, and the patient decomposer gets to work. Or perhaps both.

Seizing a human-created opportunity

The favourable conditions sought after byMycenaseem to be related to human activity.

"It is reasonable to believe that we humans have played a role in this adaptation, because our monocultural plantations, stands of forest for example, have provided fungi with optimal conditions for adapting. The fungi seem to have seized upon this opportunity," he says.

"Specialists thrive in old-growth forest. In this scenario, there aren't many chances forMycenato settle on living trees because specialized fungi are already present in this natural setting and don't allow others in," says the mycologist.

On the other hand, human cultivated homogeneous plantations with young plants of the same age giveMycenaa chance, because specialized fungi have yet to establish themselves. The same applies to harsh environments, such as in the Arctic, or disturbed environments, e.g., where there are many grazing animals about.

"These places present challenging conditions for many organisms, butMycenaare among those that seem to benefit," says Christoffer Bugge Harder.

Additional info: Fear not fungi

Recent research has demonstrated that many trees bear the seeds of their own destruction -- or at least those of an effective funeral director, as some of the fungi that thrive at their roots are also ready to begin decomposing them once they die.

After we humans die, fungi often play an important role in our decomposition as well. However, Christoffer Bugge Harder assures that we should not be worried about fungi invading us while we are still alive.

"The human body, unlike trees, is exceptionally adept at protecting us from the enormous amounts of spores that we are exposed to on a daily basis," he says

Nevertheless, there has been an increased global focus on fungal infections as a threat to human health in recent years. This is because an essential aspect of the human body's defenses is our body heat, which is intolerable to many fungi. There is now speculation that climate change, and rising temperatures in particular, could lead to an adaptation in the fungal kingdom that would allow them to survive at our body temperature.

"It isn't inconceivable that groups of fungi relevant to the ecological niche of humans could develop. But, there are lots of fungi in tropical regions which have already adapted to high temperatures. When they're not in our bodies anyway, it is due to our effective immune system. So, I don't see any reason to fear fungi -- or at least not worry aboutMycena," says Christoffer Bugge Harder

Facts:Mycena

Most species of theMycenagenus are small, often only a few centimeters wide.Mycenacaps are conical or bell-shaped and look like their common namesake -- bonnets. Most are brown or gray but can also be whitish or almost transparent.

The fungi are generally not edible and can lead to poisoning and slight hallucinations.

Facts: The fungal kingdom's three ecological niches

• Species that have specialized in living off of nonliving vegetation for millions of years are known as saprotophic fungi.
• Species that feed on living vegetation are called parasitic fungi.
• Fungi that coexist symbiotically with living trees and plants and exchange nutrients with their host are known as mutualistic.

However, the traditionally strict division of fungi into three ecological niches is increasingly being called into question.Mycenais a new example of a fungus that blurs the lines.

Facts: Evidence of collaboration

Isotopes are versions of a chemical element that have a different number of neutrons, and therefore can be light or heavy depending on their composition.

For example, as trees and mutualistic fungi work together, a larger proportion of heavy nitrogen isotopes are left in the fungi, as heavy isotopes are more difficult to move.

Because they are left to a greater extent when a fungus has shared nitrogen with its host plant, it is something that researchers can measure.

Facts: PCR and DNA sequencing used to find theMycena

Using the PCR method that most people are familiar with from viral testing, the researchers foundMycenain samples of living trees in forests, meadows and Arctic mountain heaths around the world. In the method, strands of DNA are propagated when present in a sample so that they can be easily identified.

By sequencing the DNA strands so that part of the code is known, researchers were then able to search international databases of the most known fungal DNA and in doing so, determine whether the samples containedMycena, for example.

Behind the research

In addition to Christoffer Bugge Harder, the following researchers have contributed to the study:

• Emily Hesling -- University of Aberdeen, UK
• Synnøve S. Botnen -- University of Oslo and Oslo Metropolitan University, Norway
• Kelsey E. Lorberau -- University of Oslo and UiT -- The Arctic University of Norway, Norway
• Bálint Dima -- Eötvös Loránd University, Hungary and University of Helsinki, Finland
• Tea von Bonsdorff-Salminen -- University of Helsinki, Finland
• Tuula Niskanen University of Helsinki, Finland and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK
• Susan G. Jarvis -- UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, UK
• Andrew Ouimette -- University of New Hampshire, USA
• 艾莉森·海丝特,英国詹姆斯•赫顿学院
• Erik A. Hobbie -- University of New Hampshire, USA
• Andy F. S. Taylor -- University of Aberdeen, UK The James Hutton Institute, UK
• Håvard Kauserud -- University of Oslo, Norway